The Buddha's main concern was to eliminate suffering, to find
a cure for the pain of human existence. In this respect he has been compared to a physician,
and his teaching has
been compared to a medical or psychological prescription. Like a physician, he
observed the symptoms -- the disease that human kind was suffering from; next he
gave a diagnosis - the cause of
the disease; then he gave the
prognosis -- it could be cured; finally he gave the prescription -- the method
by which the condition could be cured.
His first teaching, the Four Noble Truths, follows this
pattern. First, the insight that "life is dukkha." Dukkha is variously translated as
suffering, pain, impermanence; it is the unsatisfactory quality of life which is
targeted here -- life is often beset with sorrow and trouble, and even at its
best, is never completely fulfilling. We always want more happiness, less pain. But this 'wanting more' is
itself the problem: the second noble truth teaches that the pain of life is
caused by 'tanha' -- our cravings, our attachments, our selfish grasping after
pleasure and avoiding pain. Is there something else possible? The third noble
truth says yes; a complete release from attachment and dukkha is possible, a
liberation from pain and rebirth. The fourth noble truth tells how to attain
this liberation; it describes the Noble Eightfold Path leading to Nirvana, the
utter extinction of the pain of existence.
Another main teaching of Buddhist metaphysics is known as the
Three Marks of Existence. The first is Anicca, impermanence: all things are
transitory, nothing lasts. The second is Anatta, No-Self or No-Soul: human beings, and all of
existence, is without a soul or self.
There is no eternal, unchanging part of us, like the Hindu idea of Atman; there
is no eternal, unchanging aspect of the universe, like the Hindu idea of
Brahman. The entire idea of self is seen as an illusion, one which causes
immeasurable suffering; this false idea gives rise to the consequent tendency to try to
protect the self or ego and to preserve its interests, which is futile since
nothing is permanent anyway. The third mark of existence is that of Dukkha,
suffering: all of existence, not just human existence but even the highest
states of meditation, are forms of suffering,
ultimately inadequate and unsatisfactory.
The three marks of existence can be seen as the basis for the
four noble truths above; in turn the three marks of existence may be seen to
come out of an even more fundamental Buddhist theory, that of Pratityasamutpada:
Dependent Origination, or Interdependent Co-arising. This theory says that
all things
are cause and are caused by other things; all of existence is conditioned,
nothing exists independently, and there is no First Cause. There was no
beginning to the chain of causality; it is useless to speculate how phenomenal
existence started. However, it can be ended, and that is the ultimate goal of
Buddhism - the ultimate liberation of all creatures from the pain of existence.
Sometimes this causality is spoken of as a circular linking
of twelve different factors; if the chain of causality can be broken, existence
is ended and liberation attained. One of these factors is attachment or craving,
tanha, and another is ignorance; these two are emphasized as being the weak
links in the chain, the place to make a break. To overcome selfish craving, one
cultivates the heart through compassion; to eliminate ignorance one cultivates
the mind through wisdom. Compassion and wisdom are twin virtues in Buddhism, and
are cultured by ethical behavior and meditation, respectively. It is a process
of self-discipline and self-development which emphasizes the heart and mind
equally, and insists that both working together are necessary for enlightenment.
If Buddhism can be seen as a process of personal development,
one may well ask: what is a person, if not a soul or self? In keeping with the
ideas of dependent origination, Buddhism views a person as a changing
configuration of five factors, or 'skandhas.' First there is the world of physical
form; the body and all material objects, including the sense organs. Second
there is the factor of sensation or feeling; here are found the five senses as
well as mind, which in Buddhism is considered a sense organ. The mind senses
thoughts and ideas much the same as the eye senses light or the ear senses air
pressure. Thirdly, there is the factor of perception; here is the faculty which
recognizes physical and mental objects. Fourth there is the factor variously
called impulses or mental formulations; here is volition and attention, the
faculty of will, the force of habits. Lastly, there is the faculty of
consciousness or awareness. In Buddhism consciousness is not something apart
from the other factors, but rather interacting with them and dependent on them
for its existence; there is no arising of consciousness without conditions.
Here we see no idea
of personhood as constancy, but rather a fleeting, changing assortment or
process of various interacting factors. A major aim of Buddhism is first to
become aware of this process, and then to eliminate it by eradicating its
causes.
This process does not terminate with the dissolution of the
physical body upon death; Buddhism assumes reincarnation. Even though there is no soul to continue
after death, the five skandhas are seen as continuing on, powered by past karma,
and resulting in rebirth. Karma in Buddhism, as in Hinduism, stems from
volitional action and results in good or bad effects in this or a future life.
Buddhism explains the karmic mechanism a bit differently; it is not the results
of the action per se that result in karma, but rather the state of mind of the
person performing the action. Here again, Buddhism tends to focus on
psychological insights; the problem with bad or selfish action is that it molds
our personality, creates ruts or habitual patterns of thinking and feeling.
These patterns in turn result in the effects of karma in our lives.
Many other metaphysical questions were put to the Buddha
during his life; he did not answer them all. He eschewed the more abstract and
speculative metaphysical pondering, and discouraged such questions as hindrances
on the path. Such questions as what is Nirvana like, what preceded existence,
etc., were often met by silence or what may have seemed like mysterious
obscurity. Asked what happens to an Arhant, an
enlightened one, upon his death, the Buddha was said to have replied: "What
happens to the footprints of the birds in the air." Nirvana means 'extinction' and he
likened the death of an arhant to the extinction of a flame when the fuel
(karma) runs out. He evidently felt that many such questions were arising out of
a false attachment to self, and that they distracted one from the main business
of eliminating suffering.
The Path to Liberation: the Buddhist Way of Life
The Buddha intended his philosophy to be a practical one,
aimed at the happiness of all creatures. While he outlined his metaphysics, he
did not expect anyone to accept this on faith but rather to verify the insights
for themselves; his emphasis was always on seeing clearly and understanding. To
achieve this, however, requires a disciplined life and a clear commitment to
liberation; the Buddha laid out a clear path to the goal and also observations
on how to live life wisely. The core of this teaching is contained in the Noble
Eightfold Path, which covers the three essential areas of Buddhist practice:
ethical conduct, mental discipline ('concentration' or 'meditation'), and
wisdom. The goals are to cultivate both wisdom and compassion; then these
qualities together will enable one ultimately to attain enlightenment.
The path
is laid out in eight steps, but one may practice all of the steps
simultaneously, since they work together.
The first two steps or factors constitute Wisdom. Right
understanding (or right views) is the grasping of true reality, as seen in the
Buddhist teachings; it is not merely an intellectual understanding, although
this helps. Rather it is a direct insight and penetration into the nature of
things. Right thought (or right intentions) is that frame of mind which is
selfless, detached and free of malice; that generosity of spirit which extends
loving benevolence to all beings.
The next three steps on the eightfold path constitute ethical
conduct. Right speech involves abstaining from lies, from rude or malicious
language, from foolish gossip, and from slander or backbiting that may cause
disharmony. One should speak a gentle, kind, and useful truth, or not speak at
all. Right action requires abstaining from killing and all violence, stealing,
dishonest practices, intoxicating drinks and improper sexual behavior.
Right livelihood means that one should abstain from any profession that brings
harm to others, such as weaponry, butchering animals or selling liquor. Also
one's career should develop one's talents, overcome the ego by joining in a
common cause, and provide what is needed for a worthwhile existence -- basic
comforts and necessities, but not ostentatious luxuries.
The last three steps on the path are those which promote
mental discipline. Right effort is the will to cultivate wholesome states of
mind and eliminate evil or unwanted ones. Right mindfulness (or attentiveness)
involves being keenly aware of the processes involved in one's daily existence,
those of the body, the sensations, the mind and the experiencing of thoughts and
ideas. Mindfulness is practiced in Buddhist forms of meditation such as
vipassana, through techniques like observation of the breath and bodily
sensations. Right concentration refers to the progressive stages of dhyana (this
is closer to what is called meditation in most Hindu traditions). In this
discipline, the mind is gradually cleared of passionate desires, then thoughts,
then finally even feelings of joy, until only pure awareness remains, in a state
of perfect calm and equanimity.
Other teachings speak of the Four Friends and the Five
Hindrances that one encounters along the path; these are qualities in the heart
which may aid or distract one from the process. The four friends are: loving
kindness, compassion, sympathetic joy and equanimity. Loving kindness is
universal love for all beings, without distinction. Compassion is the ability to
empathize with others -- to feel what they are feeling. Sympathetic joy is the
quality that takes delight in the happiness of others. Equanimity is a calm
acceptance of all that happens, based on the insight of the impermanence of all
things; in the end, the only thing that really matters is liberation, so the
vicissitudes of life don't really have much significance.
The five hindrances are: sensual desire; ill will; sloth and torpor;
restlessness and worry, or distraction; and skeptical doubt. Everyone has these
hindrances in common, so it is important to find ways of eliminating them; they
are like toxins or weeds which prevent the cultivation of those qualities
essential for self-discipline and stand in the way of our liberation.
The Buddha's teachings on ethics and living a good life also
extended to the realm of the social and political. He was ahead of his time in
many ways; considering all people as equal, he rejected the caste system and
openly encouraged women to become students and teachers. He taught that
governments had a responsibility to lead by example, to teach people ethics and
to eliminate poverty by providing opportunities for the people to become
prosperous. He was clearly opposed to all forms of war, and taught that violence
can never create security. In keeping with these teachings, Buddhism is rare
among world religions in that its followers never attempted to spread their
beliefs through the use of force. Unique among victorious leaders, the Buddhist
emperor Asoka in the third century BCE renounced violence and war, and put
Buddhist ethical virtues at the center of his government.
Regarding the Buddhist path as a philosophy, one may consider
its epistemology: certain claims of knowledge have been made, but how can they
be known to be true? As stated above, the Buddha himself never asked anyone to
accept unproven claims on faith, and in fact discouraged them from doing so. He
maintained that his teachings could be verified by direct insight and reasoning,
by anyone willing to consider them and to follow the necessary path of
self-discipline. Starting from a few basic assumptions, such as impermanence and
dependent origination, he derived a complex and consistent system of philosophy
which has stood for centuries. Later teachers have validated his claim that
others could reach the same insights, and they have expanded upon his basic
teachings with impressive intuitive depth and intellectual rigor.
In this way the Buddhist teaching has itself become a kind of
interactive and self-evolving process, much like its idea of pratityasamutpada.
However, the end goal is still Nirvana, which is an experience ultimately beyond
all concepts and language, even beyond the Buddhist teachings. In the end even
the attachment to the Dharma, the Buddhist teaching, must be dropped like all
other attachments. The tradition compares the teaching to a raft upon which one
crosses a swift river to get to the other side; once one is on the far shore,
there is no longer any need to carry the raft. The far
shore is Nirvana, and it is also said that when one arrives, one can see quite
clearly that there was never any river at all.
Buddhism, (and other Major Religions), can be seen as viewing Spirituality as being "relative"
Buddhism joins with Christianity, Islam, and Vedanta-Hinduism in
suggesting that human behaviors have several identifiable
tendencies ~
Him I call indeed a Brâhmana who does not cling to
pleasures, like water on a lotus leaf, like a mustard seed on the
point of a needle.
Him I call indeed a Brâhmana who, even here, knows the
end of his suffering, has put down his burden, and is
unshackled.
Him I call indeed a Brâhmana whose knowledge is deep,
who possesses wisdom, who knows the right way and the wrong, and
has attained the highest end.
Him I call indeed a Brâhmana who keeps aloof both from
laymen and from mendicants, who frequents no houses, and has but
few desires.
Him I call indeed a Brâhmana who finds no fault with
other beings, whether feeble or strong, and does not kill nor
cause slaughter.
Him I call indeed a Brâhmana who is tolerant with the
intolerant, mild with fault-finders, and free from passion among
the passionate.
Him I call indeed a Brâhmana from whom anger and hatred,
pride and envy have dropt like a mustard seed from the point of a
needle.
Dhammapada V. 401-407
Hinduism or Vedanta is another of the World Faiths which
imputes a multi-faceted character to human "existential
being".
In the Bhagavad Gita we read ~
Arjuna spoke.
But by what is a man impelled, O Varshneya! when he commits
sin even against his will, as if compelled by force?
The Holy One spoke.
It is lust: it is wrath, born from the "passion" mode: know
that this, all-devouring, all-defiling, is here our foe.
Bhagavad Gita 3: 36-37
and again ~
... the pleasures that come from the world bear in them sorrows to come. They come and they go, they
are transient: not in them do the wise find joy.
But he who on this earth, before his departure, can endure the storms of desire and wrath, this man is a
Yogi, this man has joy.
He has inner joy, he has inner gladness, and he has found inner Light. This Yogi attains the Nirvana
of Brahman: he is one with God and goes unto God.
Holy men reach the Nirvana of Brahman: their sins are no more, their doubts are gone, their soul
is in harmony, their joy is in the good of all.
Because the peace of God is with them whose mind and soul are in harmony, who are free from
desire and wrath, who know their own soul.
Bhagavad Gita 5: 22-26
Key Christian teachings such as the Sermon on the Mount and the Parable of the Sower can also
be suggested of as displaying Spirituality / Desire / Wrath "Relativity".
The Sermon on the Mount is a rather extensive teaching and is available by following this link:-
